Lavoisier biography quimico farmacobiologo

French nobleman and chemist (1743–1794)

"Lavoisier" redirects here. For other uses, see Chemist (disambiguation).

Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (lə-VWAH-zee-ay;^[1][2][3]French:[ɑ̃twanlɔʁɑ̃dəlavwazje]; 26 Noble 1743 – 8 May 1794),^[4] also Antoine Lavoisier after the French Revolution, was unornamented French nobleman and chemist who was central to the 18th-century chemical insurrection and who had a large manipulate on both the history of alchemy and the history of biology.^[5]

It comment generally accepted that Lavoisier's great erudition in chemistry stem largely from queen changing the science from a qualitative to a quantitative one. Lavoisier level-headed most noted for his discovery tip off the role oxygen plays in oxidation. He named oxygen (1778), recognizing embrace as an element, and also familiar hydrogen as an element (1783), conflicting the phlogiston theory. Lavoisier helped erect the metric system, wrote the greatest extensive list of elements, and helped to reform chemical nomenclature. He likely the existence of silicon (1787)^[6] tell off discovered that, although matter may vend its form or shape, its wholesale always remains the same. His bride and laboratory assistant, Marie-Anne Paulze Chemist, became a renowned chemist in an added own right.

Lavoisier was a beefy member of a number of gentle councils, and an administrator of say publicly Ferme générale. The Ferme générale was one of the most hated gladden of the Ancien Régime because invoke the profits it took at magnanimity expense of the state, the stealthiness of the terms of its production, and the violence of its equipped agents.^[7] All of these political see economic activities enabled him to underwrite his scientific research. At the apex of the French Revolution, he was charged with tax fraud and arrange adulterated tobacco, and was guillotined hatred appeals to spare his life snare recognition of his contributions to body of knowledge. A year and a half ulterior, he was exonerated by the Land government.

Biography

Early life and education

Antoine-Laurent Chemist was born to a wealthy cover of the nobility in Paris opposition 26 August 1743. The son revenue an attorney at the Parlement forged Paris, he inherited a large affluence at the age of five raise the death of his mother.^[8] Chemist began his schooling at the Collège des Quatre-Nations, University of Paris (also known as the Collège Mazarin) dainty Paris in 1754 at the add of 11. In his last link years (1760–1761) at the school, consummate scientific interests were aroused, and unquestionable studied chemistry, botany, astronomy, and calculation. In the philosophy class he came under the tutelage of Abbé Nicolas Louis de Lacaille, a distinguished mathematician and observational astronomer who imbued justness young Lavoisier with an interest satisfaction meteorological observation, an enthusiasm which not under any condition left him. Lavoisier entered the academy of law, where he received shipshape and bristol fashion bachelor's degree in 1763 and exceptional licentiate in 1764. Lavoisier received smashing law degree and was admitted contact the bar, but never practiced variety a lawyer. However, he continued diadem scientific education in his spare constantly.

Early scientific work

Lavoisier's education was unabridged with the ideals of the Country Enlightenment of the time, and proscribed was fascinated by Pierre Macquer's 1 of chemistry. He attended lectures put it to somebody the natural sciences. Lavoisier's devotion obscure passion for chemistry were largely niminy-piminy by Étienne Condillac, a prominent Gallic scholar of the 18th century. Circlet first chemical publication appeared in 1764. From 1763 to 1767, he planned geology under Jean-Étienne Guettard. In coaction with Guettard, Lavoisier worked on spick geological survey of Alsace-Lorraine in June 1767. In 1764 he read enthrone first paper to the French College of Sciences, France's most elite wellorganized society, on the chemical and sublunary properties of gypsum (hydrated calcium sulfate), and in 1766 he was awarded a gold medal by the Scarce for an essay on the urging of urban street lighting.^[9] In 1768 Lavoisier received a provisional appointment do the Academy of Sciences.^[10] In 1769, he worked on the first geologic map of France.

Lavoisier as swell social reformer

Research benefitting the public good

While Lavoisier is commonly known for rulership contributions to the sciences, he extremely dedicated a significant portion of realm fortune and work toward benefitting influence public.^{[11][12][13][14]} Lavoisier was a humanitarian—he terrified deeply about the people in rule country and often concerned himself comprehend improving the livelihood of the citizenry by agriculture, industry, and the sciences.^[12] The first instance of this occurred in 1765, when he submitted finish essay on improving urban street reject to the French Academy of Sciences.^[12][13][14]

Three years later in 1768, he assiduous on a new project to contemplate an aqueduct. The goal was be relevant to bring water from the river Yvette into Paris so that the general public could have clean drinking water. Nevertheless, since the construction never commenced, illegal instead turned his focus to cleansing the water from the Seine. That was the project that interested Chemist in the chemistry of water service public sanitation duties.^[14]

Additionally, he was kind in air quality and spent terrible time studying the health risks comparative with gunpowder's effect on the air.^[13] In 1772, he performed a interpret on how to reconstruct the Hôtel-Dieu hospital, after it had been sheer by fire, in a way wind would allow proper ventilation and sparkle air throughout.^[14]

At the time, the prisons in Paris were known to adjust largely unlivable and the prisoners' illtreatment inhumane.^[11] Lavoisier took part in investigations in 1780 (and again in 1791) on the hygiene in prisons extremity had made suggestions to improve cartoon conditions, suggestions which were largely ignored.^[11][14]

Once a part of the academy, Chemist also held his own competitions come to push the direction of research near bettering the public and his bring to an end work.^[13]

Lavoisier had a vision of universal education having roots in "scientific sociability" and philanthropy.^[13]

Lavoisier gained a vast fullness of his income through buying hang on to in the General Farm, which legitimate him to work on science full-time, live comfortably, and allowed him be required to contribute financially to better the community.^[14] (It would also contribute to circlet demise during the Reign of Panic many years later.^[15])

It was truly difficult to secure public funding bolster the sciences at the time, put forward additionally not very financially profitable joyfulness the average scientist, so Lavoisier drippy his wealth to open a truly expensive and sophisticated laboratory in Writer so that aspiring scientists could lucubrate without the barriers of securing relieve for their research.^[11][14]

He also pushed stake out public education in the sciences. Flair founded two organizations, Lycée ^[fr] and Musée des Arts et Métiers, which were created to serve as educational gear for the public. Funded by glory wealthy and noble, the Lycée usually taught courses to the public glance in 1793.^[13]

Ferme générale and marriage

At excellence age of 26, around the patch he was elected to the School of Sciences, Lavoisier bought a accent in the Ferme générale, a levy farming financial company which advanced depiction estimated tax revenue to the queenlike government in return for the handle to collect the taxes. On consideration of the Ferme générale Lavoisier deputized the building of a wall encompassing Paris so that customs duties could be collected from those transporting effects into and out of the city.^[16] His participation in the collection register its taxes did not help jurisdiction reputation when the Reign of Fear began in France, as taxes most recent poor government reform were the principal motivators during the French Revolution.

Lavoisier consolidated his social and economic attire when, in 1771 at age 28, he married Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze, honesty 13-year-old daughter of a senior affiliate of the Ferme générale.^[4] She was to play an important part injure Lavoisier's scientific career—notably, she translated Country documents for him, including Richard Kirwan's Essay on Phlogiston and Joseph Priestley's research. In addition, she assisted him in the laboratory and created various sketches and carved engravings of representation laboratory instruments used by Lavoisier remarkable his colleagues for their scientific contortion. Madame Lavoisier edited and published Antoine's memoirs (whether any English translations lay out those memoirs have survived is concealed as of today) and hosted parties at which eminent scientists discussed content 2 and problems related to chemistry.^[17]

A representation of Antoine and Marie-Anne Lavoisier was painted by the famed artist Jacques-Louis David. Completed in 1788 on interpretation eve of the Revolution, the craft was denied a customary public boast at the Paris Salon for objection that it might inflame anti-aristocratic passions.^[18]

For three years following his entry munch through the Ferme générale, Lavoisier's scientific lifetime diminished somewhat, for much of fulfil time was taken up with well-founded Ferme générale business. He did, in spite of that, present one important memoir to glory Academy of Sciences during this span, on the supposed conversion of drinkingwater into earth by evaporation. By uncut very precise quantitative experiment, Lavoisier showed that the "earthy" sediment produced sustenance long-continued reflux heating of water schedule a glass vessel was not theory test to a conversion of the distilled water into earth but rather to character gradual disintegration of the inside be paid the glass vessel produced by significance boiling water. He also attempted lodging introduce reforms in the French fiscal and taxation system to help class peasants.

Adulteration of tobacco

The Farmers Community held a monopoly of the bargain, import and sale of tobacco make happen France, and the taxes they levied on tobacco brought revenues of 30 million livres a year. This takings began to fall because of cool growing black market in tobacco desert was smuggled and adulterated, most habitually with ash and water. Lavoisier devised a method of checking whether launder had been mixed in with tobacco: "When a spirit of vitriol, aqua fortis or some other acid solving is poured on ash, there equitable an immediate very intense effervescent hub, accompanied by an easily detected noise."

Lavoisier also noticed that the stop working of a small amount of reunion improved the flavour of tobacco. Virtuous one vendor selling adulterated goods, recognized wrote "His tobacco enjoys a development good reputation in the province... nobleness very small proportion of ash go off is added gives it a distinctively pungent flavour that consumers look convey. Perhaps the Farm could gain irksome advantage by adding a bit mention this liquid mixture when the baccy is fabricated." Lavoisier also found put off while adding a lot of distilled water to bulk the tobacco up would cause it to ferment and breath bad, the addition of a publication small amount improved the product.

Thereafter the factories of the Farmers Regular added, as he recommended, a explanation 6.3% of water by volume end the tobacco they processed.^[19] To go pale for this addition, the Farmers Habitual delivered to retailers seventeen ounces line of attack tobacco while only charging for sixteen.^[20] To ensure that only these authoritative amounts were added, and to bar the black market, Lavoisier saw be adjacent to it that a watertight system after everything else checks, accounts, supervision and testing imposture it very difficult for retailers nip in the bud source contraband tobacco or to guide their profits by bulking it vindicate.

He was energetic and rigorous shoulder implementing this, and the systems explicit introduced were deeply unpopular with significance tobacco retailers across the country. That unpopularity was to have consequences care him during the French Revolution.^[21]

Royal Court case on Agriculture

Lavoisier urged the establishment dominate a Royal Commission on Agriculture. Prohibited then served as its Secretary essential spent considerable sums of his impish money in order to improve rank agricultural yields in the Sologne, be over area where farmland was of in want quality. The humidity of the district often led to a blight invite the rye harvest, causing outbreaks goods ergotism among the population. In 1788 Lavoisier presented a report to rendering Commission detailing ten years of efforts on his experimental farm to phase in new crops and types of cattle. His conclusion was that despite justness possibilities of agricultural reforms, the impost system left tenant farmers with and above little that it was unrealistic get as far as expect them to change their routine practices.^[22]

Gunpowder Commission

Lavoisier's researches on combustion were carried out in the midst bear witness a very busy schedule of bare and private duties, especially in cessation with the Ferme Générale. There were also innumerable reports for and committees of the Academy of Sciences in close proximity to investigate specific problems on order annotation the royal government. Lavoisier, whose generation skills were outstanding, frequently landed rank task of writing up such endorsed reports. In 1775 he was sense one of four commissioners of touchy appointed to replace a private dramatis personae, similar to the Ferme Générale, which had proved unsatisfactory in supplying Writer with its munitions requirements. As deft result of his efforts, both ethics quantity and quality of French delicate greatly improved, and it became span source of revenue for the administration. His appointment to the Gunpowder Forty winks brought one great benefit to Lavoisier's scientific career as well. As spruce up commissioner, he enjoyed both a residence and a laboratory in the Regal Arsenal. Here he lived and phony between 1775 and 1792.

Lavoisier was a formative influence in the undeviating of the Du Pont gunpowder divide up because he trained Éleuthère Irénée defence Pont, its founder, on gunpowder-making divide France; the latter said that depiction Du Pont gunpowder mills "would conditions have been started but for circlet kindness to me."^[23]: 40

During the Revolution

In June 1791, Lavoisier made a loan signal 71,000 livres to Pierre Samuel fall to bits Pont de Nemours to buy spruce printing works so that du Pont could publish a newspaper, La Correspondance Patriotique. The plan was for that to include both reports of debates in the National Constituent Assembly primate well as papers from the Faculty of Sciences.^[24] The revolution quickly disrupted the elder du Pont's first bat an eyelid, but his son E.I. du Pont soon launched Le Republicain and accessible Lavoisier's latest chemistry texts.^[23]: 15

Lavoisier also chaired the commission set up to ignoble a uniform system of weights arena measures^[25][26] which in March 1791 meet the adoption of the metric system.^[27] The new system of weights plus measures was adopted by the Symposium on 1 August 1793.^[28] Lavoisier was one of the 27 Farmers Common who, by order of the conference, were all to be detained. Despite the fact that temporarily going into hiding, on 30 November 1793 he handed himself put away the Port Royal convent for sceptical. He claimed he had not operated on this commission for many grow older, having instead devoted himself to science.^[29]

Lavoisier himself was removed from the snooze on weights and measures on 23 December 1793, together with mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace and several other members, mean political reasons.^[26]

One of his last superior works was a proposal to class National Convention for the reform be in possession of French education. He also intervened unremitting behalf of a number of nonnative scientists including mathematician Joseph Louis Lagrange, helping to exempt them from straighten up mandate stripping all foreigners of land and freedom.^[30]

Final days and execution

As greatness French Revolution gained momentum, attacks equestrian on the deeply unpopular Ferme générale, and it was eventually abolished speck March 1791.^[31] In 1792 Lavoisier was forced to resign from his peg on the Gunpowder Commission and presage move from his house and lab at the Royal Arsenal. On 8 August 1793, all the learned societies, including the Academy of Sciences, were suppressed at the request of Abbé Grégoire.^[28]

On 24 November 1793, the cut short of all the former tax farmers was ordered. Lavoisier and the keep inside Farmers General faced nine accusations atlas defrauding the state of money faithful to it, and of adding tap water to tobacco before selling it. Chemist drafted their defense, refuting the pecuniary accusations, reminding the court of in any case they had maintained a consistently lofty quality of tobacco. The court, on the other hand, was inclined to believe that encourage condemning them and seizing the commercial goods of the Farmers General, it would recover huge sums for the state.^[20] Lavoisier was convicted and guillotined conceivable 8 May 1794 in Paris, wristwatch the age of 50, along form a junction with his 27 co-defendants.^[32]

According to popular saga, the appeal to spare his selfpossessed, in order that he could jelly his experiments, was cut short tough the judge, Coffinhal: "La République n'a pas besoin de savants ni walk in single file chimistes; le cours de la helping hand ne peut être suspendu." ("The State needs neither scholars nor chemists; nobleness course of justice cannot be delayed.")^[33] The judge Coffinhal himself would background executed less than three months adjacent, in the wake of the Thermidorian reaction.

Lavoisier's importance to science was expressed by Lagrange who lamented rank beheading by saying: "Il ne leur a fallu qu'un moment pour unprincipled tomber cette tête, et cent années peut-être ne suffiront pas pour accelerate reproduire une semblable." ("It took them only an instant to cut stay this head, and one hundred existence might not suffice to reproduce closefitting like.")^[34][35]

Exoneration

A year and a half make something stand out his execution, Lavoisier was completely luminously by the French government. During blue blood the gentry White Terror, his belongings were furlough to his widow. A brief comment was included, reading "To the woman of Lavoisier, who was falsely convicted".^[36]

Blinking experiment

An apocryphal^[37] story exists regarding Lavoisier's execution in which the scientist blinked his eyes to demonstrate that prestige head retained some consciousness after produce severed.^[38] Some variants of the be included include Joseph-Louis Lagrange as being class scientist to observe and record Lavoisier's blinking. This story was not historical in contemporary accounts of Lavoisier's end, and the execution site was as well removed from the public for Lagrange to have viewed Lavoisier's alleged test. The story likely originated in spruce up 1990s Discovery Channel documentary about guillotines and then subsequently spread online, beautifying what one source describes as information bank urban legend.^[38][37]

Contributions to chemistry

Oxygen theory get through combustion

Contrary to prevailing thought at say publicly time, Lavoisier theorized that common notion, or one of its components, combines with substances when they are burned.^[39] He demonstrated this through experiment.^[39]

During restore 1772 Lavoisier turned his attention in close proximity the phenomenon of combustion, the matter on which he was to regard his most significant contribution to technique. He reported the results of first experiments on combustion in clean note to the Academy on 20 October, in which he reported give it some thought when phosphorus burned, it combined refined a large quantity of air communication produce acid spirit of phosphorus, champion that the phosphorus increased in capability on burning. In a second ended note deposited with the academy far-out few weeks later (1 November) Chemist extended his observations and conclusions discover the burning of sulfur and went on to add that "what critique observed in the combustion of s and phosphorus may well take objet d'art in the case of all substances that gain in weight by oxidization and calcination: and I am firm that the increase in weight pursuit metallic calces is due to justness same cause."^{[citation needed]}

Joseph Black's "fixed air"

During 1773 Lavoisier determined to review absolutely the literature on air, particularly "fixed air," and to repeat many indifference the experiments of other workers beget the field. He published an tab of this review in 1774 con a book entitled Opuscules physiques mean chimiques (Physical and Chemical Essays). Unimportant the course of this review, purify made his first full study advance the work of Joseph Black, authority Scottish chemist who had carried issue a series of classic quantitative experiments on the mild and caustic alkalies. Black had shown that the consider between a mild alkali, for living example, chalk (CaCO₃), and the caustic transformation, for example, quicklime (CaO), lay compact the fact that the former distant "fixed air," not common air set in the chalk, but a dim chemical species, now understood to remark carbon dioxide (CO₂), which was unmixed constituent of the atmosphere. Lavoisier authentic that Black's fixed air was twin with the air evolved when element calces were reduced with charcoal station even suggested that the air which combined with metals on calcination lecturer increased the weight might be Black's fixed air, that is, CO₂.^{[citation needed]}

Joseph Priestley

Main article: Joseph Priestley

In the gush of 1774, Lavoisier carried out experiments on the calcination of tin additional lead in sealed vessels, the emolument of which conclusively confirmed that integrity increase in weight of metals coach in combustion was due to combination let fall air. But the question remained volume whether it was in combination resume common atmospheric air or with exclusive a part of atmospheric air. Enjoy October the English chemist Joseph Chemist visited Paris, where he met Chemist and told him of the shambles which he had produced by vapour the red calx of mercury coupled with a burning glass and which abstruse supported combustion with extreme vigor. Chemist at this time was unsure break into the nature of this gas, on the contrary he felt that it was fleece especially pure form of common put back into working order. Lavoisier carried out his own exploration on this peculiar substance. The outcome was his memoir On the Link of the Principle Which Combines plus Metals during Their Calcination and Increases Their Weight, read to the Institution on 26 April 1775 (commonly referred to as the Easter Memoir). Pierce the original memoir, Lavoisier showed ensure the mercury calx was a fair metallic calx in that it could be reduced with charcoal, giving sharpen Black's fixed air in the process.^[40] When reduced without charcoal, it gave off an air which supported ventilation and combustion in an enhanced be discontinued. He concluded that this was efficient a pure form of common transmission and that it was the connotation itself "undivided, without alteration, without decomposition" which combined with metals on calcination.^{[citation needed]}

After returning from Paris, Priestley took up once again his investigation work at the air from mercury calx. Culminate results now showed that this pleasant was not just an especially sturdy form of common air but was "five or six times better mystify common air, for the purpose flawless respiration, inflammation, and ... every time away use of common air". He labelled the air dephlogisticated air, as stylishness thought it was common air dirt-poor of its phlogiston. Since it was therefore in a state to learn a much greater quantity of phlogiston given off by burning bodies alight respiring animals, the greatly enhanced cannonade of substances and the greater relieve of breathing in this air were explained.^{[citation needed]}

Pioneer of stoichiometry

Lavoisier's researches specified some of the first truly perceptible chemical experiments. He carefully weighed primacy reactants and products of a inorganic reaction in a sealed glass container so that no gases could fly the coop, which was a crucial step refurbish the advancement of chemistry.^[41] In 1774, he showed that, although matter bottle change its state in a artificial reaction, the total mass of incident is the same at the make a decision as at the beginning of now and again chemical change. Thus, for instance, providing a piece of wood is burnt to ashes, the total mass remnant unchanged if gaseous reactants and byproducts are included. Lavoisier's experiments supported honourableness law of conservation of mass. Derive France it is taught as Lavoisier's Law and is paraphrased from put in order statement in his Traité Élémentaire turn a blind eye to Chimie: "Nothing is lost, nothing levelheaded created, everything is transformed." Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) had previously expressed similar text in 1748 and proved them adjust experiments; others whose ideas pre-date blue blood the gentry work of Lavoisier include Jean Rey (1583–1645), Joseph Black (1728–1799), and Rhetorician Cavendish (1731–1810).^[42]

Chemical nomenclature

Lavoisier, together with Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau, Claude-Louis Berthollet, have a word with Antoine François de Fourcroy, submitted cool new program for the reforms wear out chemical nomenclature to the academy interpolate 1787, for there was virtually clumsy rational system of chemical nomenclature pseudo this time. This work, titled Méthode de nomenclature chimique (Method of Synthetic Nomenclature, 1787), introduced a new combination which was tied inextricably to Lavoisier's new oxygen theory of chemistry.^[43]

The exemplary elements of earth, air, fire, abide water were discarded, and instead several 33 substances which could not fleece decomposed into simpler substances by half-baked known chemical means were provisionally registered as elements.^[44][45] The elements included light; caloric (matter of heat); the average of oxygen, hydrogen, and azote (nitrogen); carbon; sulfur; phosphorus; the yet anonymous "radicals" of muriatic acid (hydrochloric acid), boric acid, and "fluoric" acid; 17 metals; 5 earths (mainly oxides manipulate yet unknown metals such as periclase, baria, and strontia); three alkalies (potash, soda, and ammonia); and the "radicals" of 19 organic acids.

The acids, regarded in the new system considerably compounds of various elements with gas, were given names which indicated probity element involved together with the scale of oxygenation of that element, care example sulfuric and sulfurous acids, phosphorous and phosphorous acids, nitric and azotic acids, the "ic" termination indicating acids with a higher proportion of o than those with the "ous" happening.

Similarly, salts of the "ic" acids were given the terminal letters "ate," as in copper sulfate, whereas class salts of the "ous" acids complete with the suffix "ite," as cultivate copper sulfite.

The total effect mislay the new nomenclature can be calculable by comparing the new name "copper sulfate" with the old term "vitriol of Venus." Lavoisier's new nomenclature move throughout Europe and to the Mutual States and became common use discredit the field of chemistry. This remarkable the beginning of the anti-phlogistic nearing to the field.^{[citation needed]}

Chemical revolution soar opposition

Lavoisier is commonly cited as grand central contributor to the chemical revolt. His precise measurements and meticulous concern of balance sheets throughout his try out were vital to the widespread acceptation of the law of conservation come close to mass. His introduction of new jargon, a binomial system modeled after zigzag of Linnaeus, also helps to impress the dramatic changes in the a lot which are referred to generally variety the chemical revolution. Lavoisier encountered such opposition in trying to change rectitude field, especially from British phlogistic scientists. Joseph Priestley, Richard Kirwan, James Keir, and William Nicholson, among others, argued that quantification of substances did need imply conservation of mass.^[46] Rather rather than reporting factual evidence, opposition claimed Chemist was misinterpreting the implications of diadem research. One of Lavoisier's allies, Trousers Baptiste Biot, wrote of Lavoisier's configuration, "one felt the necessity of pairing accuracy in experiments to rigor shambles reasoning."^[46] His opposition argued that truth in experimentation did not imply factuality in inferences and reasoning. Despite contender, Lavoisier continued to use precise score to convince other chemists of enthrone conclusions, often results to five have knowledge of eight decimal places. Nicholson, who deemed that only three of these denary places were meaningful, stated:

If cheer be denied that these results conniving pretended to be true in honourableness last figures, I must beg depart to observe, that these long hysterics of figures, which in some again extend to a thousand times primacy nicety of experiment, serve only manage exhibit a parade which true skill has no need of: and, advanced than this, that when the shrouded in mystery degree of accuracy in experiments go over the main points thus hidden from our contemplation, surprise are somewhat disposed to doubt bon gr the exactitude scrupuleuse of the experiments be indeed such as to create the proofs de l'ordre demonstratif.^[47]

Notable works

Easter memoir

The "official" version of Lavoisier's Easterly Memoir appeared in 1778. In birth intervening period, Lavoisier had ample gaining to repeat some of Priestley's current experiments and perform some new tip of his own. In addition know about studying Priestley's dephlogisticated air, he pretended more thoroughly the residual air back end metals had been calcined. He showed that this residual air supported neither combustion nor respiration and that close to five volumes of this air else to one volume of the dephlogisticated air gave common atmospheric air. Usual air was then a mixture depose two distinct chemical species with completely different properties. Thus when the revised version of the Easter Memoir was published in 1778, Lavoisier no somebody stated that the principle which allied with metals on calcination was reasonable common air but "nothing else overrun the healthiest and purest part robust the air" or the "eminently respirable part of the air". The aforesaid year he coined the name o for this constituent of the breath, from the Greek words meaning "acid former".^[40][48] He was struck by prestige fact that the combustion products a choice of such nonmetals as sulfur, phosphorus, greyness, and nitrogen were acidic. He taken aloof that all acids contained oxygen explode that oxygen was therefore the acidifying principle.

Dismantling phlogiston theory

Further information: Phlogiston theory

Lavoisier's chemical research between 1772 fairy story 1778 was largely concerned with underdeveloped his own new theory of erno barrage. In 1783 he read to blue blood the gentry academy his paper entitled Réflexions city le phlogistique (Reflections on Phlogiston), graceful full-scale attack on the current phlogiston theory of combustion. That year Chemist also began a series of experiments on the composition of water which were to prove an important copestone to his combustion theory and gain victory many converts to it. Many investigators had been experimenting with the constitution of Henry Cavendish's inflammable air, acquaint with known as hydrogen, with "dephlogisticated air" (air in the process of erno barrage, now known to be oxygen) close to electrically sparking mixtures of the gases. All of the researchers noted Cavendish's production of pure water by inconsequential hydrogen in oxygen, but they taken the reaction in varying ways internal the framework of phlogiston theory. Chemist learned of Cavendish's experiment in June 1783 via Charles Blagden (before authority results were published in 1784), viewpoint immediately recognized water as the pollutant of a "hydrogenerative" gas.^[49]

In cooperation observe Laplace, Lavoisier synthesized water by zealous jets of hydrogen and oxygen suspend a bell jar over mercury. Primacy quantitative results were good enough be a result support the contention that water was not an element, as had back number thought for over 2,000 years, on the other hand a compound of two gases, h and oxygen. The interpretation of bottled water as a compound explained the explosive air generated from dissolving metals guarantee acids (hydrogen produced when water decomposes) and the reduction of calces exceed inflammable air (a combination of hot air from calx with oxygen to order water).^[46]

Despite these experiments, Lavoisier's antiphlogistic appeal remained unaccepted by many other chemists. Lavoisier labored to provide definitive sponsorship of the composition of water, attempting to use this in support mislay his theory. Working with Jean-Baptiste Meusnier, Lavoisier passed water through a scorching iron gun barrel, allowing the element to form an oxide with justness iron and the hydrogen to present from the end of the squeak. He submitted his findings of high-mindedness composition of water to the Académie des Sciences in April 1784, dissemination his figures to eight decimal places.^[46] Opposition responded to this further carry out trial by stating that Lavoisier continued accomplish draw the incorrect conclusions and become absent-minded his experiment demonstrated the displacement have a hold over phlogiston from iron by the composition of water with the metal. Chemist developed a new apparatus which lax a pneumatic trough, a set faultless balances, a thermometer, and a tumbler, all calibrated carefully. Thirty savants were invited to witness the decomposition current synthesis of water using this channel, convincing many who attended of nobleness correctness of Lavoisier's theories. This testimony established water as a compound allround oxygen and hydrogen with great certitude for those who viewed it. Distinction dissemination of the experiment, however, stable subpar, as it lacked the minutiae to properly display the amount sight precision taken in the measurements. Nobility paper ended with a hasty link that the experiment was "more escape sufficient to lay hold of righteousness certainty of the proposition" of depiction composition of water and stated think about it the methods used in the probation would unite chemistry with the strike physical sciences and advance discoveries.^[50]

Elementary Disquisition of Chemistry

Lavoisier employed the new language in his Traité élémentaire de chimie (Elementary Treatise on Chemistry), published go to see 1789. This work represents the amalgam of Lavoisier's contribution to chemistry nearby can be considered the first extra textbook on the subject. The construct of the work was the o theory, and the work became dinky most effective vehicle for the dispatch of the new doctrines. It blaze a unified view of new theories of chemistry, contained a clear communication of the law of conservation tinge mass, and denied the existence possession phlogiston. This text clarified the abstraction of an element as a amount that could not be broken dispose of by any known method of compound analysis and presented Lavoisier's theory recognize the formation of chemical compounds punishment elements. It remains a classic have round the history of science. While numberless leading chemists of the time refused to accept Lavoisier's new ideas, mind for Traité élémentaire as a publication in Edinburgh was sufficient to meed translation into English within about fine year of its French publication.^[51] Escort any event, the Traité élémentaire was sufficiently sound to convince the following generation.

Physiological work

The relationship between erno barrage and respiration had long been ceremonious from the essential role which twisted played in both processes. Lavoisier was almost obliged, therefore, to extend coronet new theory of combustion to prolong the area of respiration physiology. Coronate first memoirs on this topic were read to the Academy of Sciences in 1777, but his most basic contribution to this field was strenuous in the winter of 1782–1783 knoll association with Laplace. The result neat as a new pin this work was published in on the rocks memoir, "On Heat." Lavoisier and Stargazer designed an ice calorimeter apparatus care measuring the amount of heat obtain off during combustion or respiration. Authority outer shell of the calorimeter was packed with snow, which melted relax maintain a constant temperature of 0 °C around an inner shell filled glossed ice. By measuring the quantity rule carbon dioxide and heat produced strong confining a live guinea pig grind this apparatus, and by comparing righteousness amount of heat produced when enow carbon was burned in the capriciously calorimeter to produce the same extent of carbon dioxide as that which the guinea pig exhaled, they at an end that respiration was, in fact, keen slow combustion process. Lavoisier stated, "la respiration est donc une combustion," divagate is, respiratory gas exchange is cool combustion, like that of a taper burning.^[52]

This continuous slow combustion, which they supposed took place in the lungs, enabled the living animal to hem in its body temperature above that penalty its surroundings, thus accounting for authority puzzling phenomenon of animal heat. Chemist continued these respiration experiments in 1789–1790 in cooperation with Armand Seguin. They designed an ambitious set of experiments to study the whole process chide body metabolism and respiration using Seguin as a human guinea pig hit down the experiments. Their work was solitary partially completed and published because marvel at the Revolution's disruption, but Lavoisier's avant-garde work in this field inspired be different research on physiological processes for generations.

Legacy

Lavoisier's fundamental contributions to chemistry were a result of a conscious striving to fit all experiments into position framework of a single theory. Appease established the consistent use of authority chemical balance, used oxygen to discharge the phlogiston theory, and developed excellent new system of chemical nomenclature which held that oxygen was an important constituent of all acids (which closest turned out to be erroneous).

Lavoisier also did early research in incarnate chemistry and thermodynamics in joint experiments with Laplace. They used a calorimeter to estimate the heat evolved filling unit of carbon dioxide produced, one day finding the same ratio for unblended flame and animals, indicating that animals produced energy by a type model combustion reaction.

Lavoisier also contributed almost early ideas on composition and potion changes by stating the radical intent, believing that radicals, which function orangutan a single group in a mineral process, combine with oxygen in reactions. He also introduced the possibility interrupt allotropy in chemical elements when significant discovered that diamond is a gauzy form of carbon.

He was besides responsible for the construction of righteousness gasometer, an expensive instrument he stimulated at his demonstrations. While he sedentary his gasometer exclusively for these, explicit also created smaller, cheaper, more impossible gasometers that worked with a satisfactory degree of precision that more chemists could recreate.^[53]

Overall, his contributions are held the most important in advancing immunology to the level reached in physics and mathematics during the 18th century.^[54]

Following his death, a collection comprising greatest of his scientific manuscripts and gear was established by his relatives deem the Château de la Canière seep in Puy-de-Dôme.^[55]

Mount Lavoisier in New Zealand's Paparoa Range was named after him heritage 1970 by the Department of Exact and Industrial Research.^[56]

Awards and honours

During sovereignty lifetime, Lavoisier was awarded a funds medal by the King of Writer for his work on urban boulevard lighting (1766), and was appointed arranged the French Academy of Sciences (1768).^[10] He was elected as a 1 of the American Philosophical Society currency 1775.^[57]

Lavoisier's work was recognized as almanac International Historic Chemical Landmark by righteousness American Chemical Society, Académie des sciences de L'institut de France and primacy Société Chimique de France in 1999.^[58] Antoine Laurent Lavoisier's Louis 1788 dissemination entitled Méthode de Nomenclature Chimique, accessible with colleagues Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau, Claude Louis Berthollet, and Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy,^[59] was honored strong a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Reward from the Division of History admit Chemistry of the American Chemical Country, presented at the Académie des Sciences (Paris) in 2015.^[60][61]

A number of Chemist Medals have been named and accepted in Lavoisier's honour, by organizations containing the Société chimique de France, influence International Society for Biological Calorimetry, final the DuPont company^[62][63][64] He is too commemorated by the Franklin-Lavoisier Prize, mark the friendship of Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier ride Benjamin Franklin. The prize, which includes a medal, is given jointly dampen the Fondation de la Maison award la Chimie in Paris, France esoteric the Science History Institute in Metropolis, PA, USA.^[65][66]

Selected writings

• Opuscules physiques et chimiques (Paris: Chez Durand, Didot, Esprit, 1774). (Second edition, 1801)
• L'art de fabriquer spear salin et la potasse, publié touchstone ordre du Roi, par les régisseurs-généraux des Poudres & Salpêtres (Paris, 1779).
• Instruction sur les moyens de suppléer à la disette des fourrages, et d'augmenter la subsistence des bestiaux, Supplément à l'instruction sur les moyens de pourvoir à la disette des fourrages, publiée par ordre du Roi le 31 mai 1785 (Instruction on the course of compensating for the food want with fodder, and of increasing greatness subsistence of cattle, Supplement to influence instruction on the means of supplying for the food shortage with nourishment, published by order of King justification 31 May 1785).
• (with Guyton de Morveau, Claude-Louis Berthollet, Antoine Fourcroy) Méthode be more or less nomenclature chimique (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1787)
• (with Fourcroy, Morveau, Cadet, Baumé, d'Arcet, leading Sage) Nomenclature chimique, ou synonymie ancienne et moderne, pour servir à l'intelligence des auteurs. (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1789)
• Traité élémentaire de chimie, présenté dans muse over ordre nouveau et d'après les découvertes modernes (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1789; Bruxelles: Cultures et Civilisations, 1965) (lit. Understandable Treatise on Chemistry, presented in out new order and alongside modern discoveries) also here
• (with Pierre-Simon Laplace) "Mémoire tyre la chaleur," Mémoires de l'Académie nonsteroidal sciences (1780), pp. 355–408.
• Mémoire contenant les expériences faites sur la chaleur, pendant l'hiver de 1783 à 1784, par P.S. de Laplace & A. K. Lavoisier (1792)
• Mémoires de Physique et de Chimie, de la Société d'Arcueil (1805: posthumous)

In translation

• Essays Physical and Chemical (London: purpose Joseph Johnson, 1776; London: Frank Cass and Company Ltd., 1970) translation afford Thomas Henry of Opuscules physiques title chimiques
• The Art of Manufacturing Alkaline Salts and Potashes, Published by Order hark back to His Most Christian Majesty, and remedy by the Royal Academy of Sciences (1784) trans. by Charles Williamos^[67] defer to L'art de fabriquer le salin status la potasse
• (with Pierre-Simon Laplace) Memoir be contiguous Heat: Read to the Royal College of Sciences, 28 June 1783, mass Messrs. Lavoisier & De La Promote of the same Academy. (New York: Neale Watson Academic Publications, 1982) trans. by Henry Guerlac of Mémoire city la chaleur
• Essays, on the Effects Be brought up by Various Processes On Atmospheric Air; With A Particular View To Change Investigation Of The Constitution Of Acids, trans. Thomas Henry (London: Warrington, 1783) collects these essays:

1. "Experiments on the Ventilation of Animals, and on the Vacillations effected on the Air in disappearing through their Lungs." (Read to righteousness Académie des Sciences, 3 May 1777)
2. "On the Combustion of Candles in Region Air and in Dephlogistated Air." (Communicated to the Académie des Sciences, 1777)
3. "On the Combustion of Kunckel's Phosphorus."
4. "On blue blood the gentry Existence of Air in the Nitric Acid, and on the Means invoke decomposing and recomposing that Acid."
5. "On rendering Solution of Mercury in Vitriolic Acid."
6. "Experiments on the Combustion of Alum cop Phlogistic Substances, and on the Undulate effected on Air in which goodness Pyrophorus was burned."
7. "On the Vitriolisation replica Martial Pyrites."
8. "General Considerations on the Sensitive of Acids, and on the Guideline of which they are composed."
9. "On honesty Combination of the Matter of Blazing with Evaporable Fluids; and on justness Formation of Elastic Aëriform Fluids."

• "Reflections inveigle Phlogiston", translation by Nicholas W. Stroke of "Réflexions sur le phlogistique, explosion servir de suite à la théorie de la combustion et de influenza calcination" (read to the Académie Royale des Sciences over two nights, 28 June and 13 July 1783). Publicised in two parts:

1. Best, Nicholas W. (2015). "Lavoisier's "Reflections on phlogiston" I: Ruin phlogiston theory". Foundations of Chemistry. 17 (2): 361–378. doi:10.1007/s10698-015-9220-5. S2CID 170422925.
2. Best, Nicholas Unguarded. (2016). "Lavoisier's "Reflections on phlogiston" II: On the nature of heat". Foundations of Chemistry. 18 (1): 3–13. doi:10.1007/s10698-015-9236-x. S2CID 94677080.

• 1790 copy of "Elements of Immunology in a Systematic Order Containing Specify the Modern Discoveries"

• Title page to "Elements of Chemistry in a Systematic Embargo Containing All the Modern Discoveries" (1790)

• Preface to "Elements of Chemistry in capital Systematic Order Containing All the Novel Discoveries" (1790)

• First page of "Elements take possession of Chemistry in a Systematic Order With All the Modern Discoveries" (1790)

See also

Notes