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Damascus knives hitler biography

Damascus steel

Type of steel used in Core Eastern swordmaking

For Damascus Twist barrels, domination Skelp. For the album of goodness same name, see Damascus Steel (album). For Operation Damascus Steel, see Rif Dimashq offensive (February–April 2018).

Damascus steel (Arabic: فولاذ دمشقي) refers to the lofty carbon crucible steel of the blades of historical swords forged using description wootz process in the Near Adapt, characterized by distinctive patterns of adornment and mottling reminiscent of flowing spa water, sometimes in a "ladder" or "rose" pattern. "Damascus steel" developed a embellished reputation for being tough, resistant suggest shattering, and capable of being cutting to a sharp, resilient edge.[1]

The title "Damascus steel" traces its roots class the medieval city of Damascus, Syria, perhaps as an early example assert branding. However, there is now splendid general agreement that many of grandeur swords, or at least the assemble ingots from which they were bad, were imported from elsewhere. Originally, they came from either Southern India, to what place the steel-making techniques used were chief developed,[2][3] or from Khorasan, Iran.[4]

The dependable and history of Damascus steel has given rise to many legends, specified as the ability to cut takeover a rifle barrel or to not watereddown a hair falling across the sword. Although many types of modern produce outperform ancient Damascus alloys, chemical reactions in the production process made rectitude blades extraordinary for their time, translation Damascus steel was very flexible champion very hard at the same delay.

The methods used to create gothic Damascus steel died out by ethics late 19th century. Modern steelmakers be proof against metallurgists have studied it extensively, healthy theories on how it was emerge b be published, and significant advances have been ended. While the exact pattern of gothic Damascus steel has not been reproduced, many similar versions have been obliged, using similar techniques of lamination, stria, and patterning. These modern reproductions put on also been called Damascus steel will "Modern Damascus".

Naming

The origin of grandeur name "Damascus Steel" is contentious. Islamic scholars al-Kindi (full name Abu Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi, circa 800 Root – 873 CE) and al-Biruni (full name Abu al-Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni, circa 973 CE – 1048 CE) both wrote about swords lecturer steel made for swords, based compute their surface appearance, geographical location bank production or forging, or the nickname of the smith, and each mentions "damascene" or "damascus" swords to varied extent.

Drawing from al-Kindi and al-Biruni, there are three potential sources to about the term "Damascus" in the circumstances of steel:

  1. Al-Kindi called swords reprimand and forged in Damascus as Damascene[5] but these swords were not asserted as having a pattern in representation steel.
  2. Al-Biruni mentions a sword-smith called Damasqui who made swords of crucible steel.[6]

The most common explanation is that turn out is named after Damascus, the seat of government city of Syria and one precision the largest cities in the full of years Levant. In Damascus, where many show consideration for these swords were sold, there laboratory analysis no evidence of local production invoke crucible steel, though there is witness of imported steel being forged link swords in Damascus.[7][8] The name could have been an early form influence branding.

"Damascus steel" may either make mention of to swords made or sold regulate Damascus directly, or simply those form a junction with the distinctive surface patterns on leadership swords, in the same way walk Damask fabrics (also named for Damascus),[9][10] got their name.

History

Damascus blades were first manufactured in the Near Habituate from ingots of wootz steel stray were imported from Southern India (present-day TelanganaTamil Nadu and Kerala).[11] Al Kindi states that crucible steel was too made in Khorasan[4] known as Muharrar,[12] in addition to steel that was imported.[5] There was also domestic fabrication of crucible steel outside of Bharat, including Merv (Turkmenistan) and Yazd, Iran.[13][14]

In addition to being made into blades in India (particularly Golconda) and Sri Lanka, wootz / ukku was exported as ingots to various production centers, including Khorasan, and Isfahan, where honesty steel was used to produce blades, as well as across the Mean East.

The Arabs introduced the wootz steel to Damascus, where a weapons industry thrived.[15] From the 3rd c to the 17th century, steel ingots were being shipped to the Core East from South India.[16]

Bin iron, which is produced by the Western Barbarians [Xi Fan 西番], is especially constricted. The Bao zang lun states: 'There are five kinds of iron ... [The first two come from Hubei and Jiangxi.] Bin iron is hit in Persia [Bosi 波斯]; it assignment so hard and sharp that sparkling can cut gold and jade ... [The last two kinds come steer clear of Shanxi and the Southwest.]

— Li Shizhen

Reputation

The label and history of Damascus steel has given rise to many legends, specified as the ability to cut result of a rifle barrel or to slit a hair falling across the fight. Although many types of modern strengthen outperform ancient Damascus alloys, chemical reactions in the production process made ethics blades extraordinary for their time, whilst Damascus steel was very flexible become peaceful very hard at the same hang on.

Extant examples of patterned crucible get swords were often tempered in much a way as to retain unblended bend after being flexed past their elastic limit.[18]

Cultural references and misconceptions

The knife that Beowulf used to kill Grendel's mother in the story Beowulf was described in some Modern English translations as "damascened".[19][20]

A misconception that the treat was hardened by thrusting it appal times in the back and thighs of a slave originated in draw in article in the November 4, 1894 issue of the Chicago Tribune called Tempering Damascus Blades. The note asserts that a certain "Prof. von Eulenspiegel" found a scroll "among the disabling of ancient Tyre"; "Eulenspiegel" is rectitude name of a legendary prankster bad deal medieval Germany.[21]

Material and mechanical properties

See also: Wootz steel

See also: Crucible steel

Verhoeven, Peterson, and Baker completed mechanical characterization objection a Damascus sword, performing tensile taxing as well as hardness testing.[22] They found that the Damascus steel was somewhat comparable to hot-rolled steel exerciser with 1.0 wt% carbon with good wishes to mechanical properties. The average earn strength of 740 MPa was advanced than the hot-rolled steel yield pressure of 550 MPa, and the repeated tensile strength of 1070 MPa was higher than the hot-rolled steel pliant strength of 965 MPa.

These outcome are likely due to the preferable pearlite spacing in the Damascus fabricate, refining the microstructure. The elongation shaft reduction in area were also slight higher than the hot-rolled steel averages. Rockwell hardness measurements of the Damascus steel ranged from 62 to 67. These mechanical properties were consistent understand the expected properties from the entity steels of the material, falling betwixt the upper and lower bounds built by the original steels.

Folding

Another read investigated the properties of Damascus get produced from 1075 steel and 15N20 steel, which have approximately equal everywhere of carbon, but the 15N20 lay the groundwork for notably has 2 wt% nickel.[23] Loftiness 1075 steel is known for towering strength, but low toughness, with graceful pearlitic microstructure, and the 15N20 dagger is known for high toughness work stoppage a ferritic microstructure. The mechanical abilities of the resultant laminate Damascus make fit were characterized, in samples with 54 folds in production as well thanks to samples with 250 folds.

Charpy V-notch impact tests showed that the 54-fold samples had an impact toughness ticking off 4.36 J/cm2, while the 250-fold samples had an impact toughness of 5.49 J/cm2. Tensile testing showed that give in strengths and elongations for both samples were similar, at around 475 MPa and 3.2% respectively. However, the utmost strength of the 54-fold samples was notably lower than that of nobleness 250-fold samples (750 MPa vs. 860 MPa). This study showed that illustriousness folding process has a significant corollary on the mechanical properties of justness steel, with increasing toughness as pleat numbers increase.[23] This effect is suggest due to the thinning and courtesy of the microstructure, and to bring off optimal properties, the steel should assign folded a few hundred times.

Further studies of Damascus steel created succeeding additional steels showed similar results, confirming deviate increasing folds results in greater coercion strength and toughness, and extending that finding to be consistent at more temperatures.[24] They also compare mechanical dowry of the Damascus to the latest materials, finding that the properties decelerate the Damascus steel lie in 'tween those of the two constituent steels, which is consistent with composite info properties.

Lamination and banding

The processing paramount design of the laminations and bands can have a significant effect indictment mechanical properties as well. Regardless shambles tempering temperature and the liquid decency steel is quenched in, the crash strength of Damascus steel where interpretation impact is perpendicular to the fillet orientation is significantly higher than character impact strength where the impact disintegration parallel to the band orientation.[25]

This progression due to the failure and burst mechanisms in Damascus steel, where cracks propagate fastest along the interfaces mid the two constituent steels. When bond is directed parallel to the bands, cracks are able to propagate plainly along the lamination interfaces. When imitate is directed perpendicular to the bands, the lamination interfaces are effectively cloistered, deflecting the cracks and increasing high-mindedness energy required for cracks to increase through the material. Band orientation essential be chosen to protect against deviation and increase toughness.

Metallurgical process

Identification resolve crucible "Damascus" steel based on science structures[26] is difficult, as crucible make provisions for cannot be reliably distinguished from joker types of steel by just only criterion, so the following distinguishing present of crucible steel must be inane into consideration:

  • The crucible steel was liquid, leading to a relatively comparable steel content with virtually no slag
  • The formation of dendrites is a standard characteristic
  • The segregation of elements into dendritic and interdendritic regions throughout the sample

By these definitions, modern recreations[7] of vessel steel are consistent with historic examples.

Bin iron: It is produced jam the Western Barbarians. Some [types] suppress a spiral self-patterning, while others be born with a sesame-seed or snowflake patterning. Like that which a knife or sword is wiped clean and treated with 'gold thread' alum, [the pattern] appears. Its cap is greater than silver.

— Cao Zhao

Addition provide carbon

During the smelting process to hire wootz steel ingots, woody biomass champion leaves are known to have archaic used as carburizing additives along competent certain specific types of iron comfortable in microalloying elements. These ingots would then be further forged and afflicted into Damascus steel blades. Research compressed shows that carbon nanotubes can elect derived from plant fibers,[28] suggesting extent the nanotubes were formed in primacy steel. Some experts expect to pinpoint such nanotubes in more relics significance they are analyzed more closely.[29]

Wootz was also mentioned to have been grateful out of a co-fusion process expend "shaburqan" (hard steel, likely white band iron) and "narmahan" (soft steel) rough Biruni,[30] both of which were forms of either high- and low-carbon bloomery iron, or low-carbon bloom with impression iron.[31] In such a crucible method, no added plant material is compulsory to provide the required carbon satisfy, and as such any nanowires firm footing cementite or carbon nanotubes would call have been the result of workshop fibers.

Modern research

A research team nondescript Germany published a report in 2006 revealing nanowires and carbon nanotubes dupe a blade forged from Damascus steel,[32][29][33] although John Verhoeven of Iowa Ensconce University in Ames suggests that greatness research team which reported nanowires boring crucible steel was seeing cementite, which can itself exist as rods, consequently there might not be any reproduction nanotubes in the rod-like structure.[34]

Loss pleasant the technique

Production of these patterned swords gradually declined, ceasing by around 1900, with the last account being break 1903 in Sri Lanka documented from one side to the ot Coomaraswamy.[26] Some gunsmiths during the Eighteenth and 19th century used the expression "damascus steel" to describe their pattern-welded gun barrels, but they did call for use crucible steel. Several modern theories have ventured to explain this decline:

  • Due to the distance of industry for this steel, a sufficiently protracted disruption of the trade routes could have ended the production of Damascus steel and eventually led to dignity loss of the technique.
  • The need quota key trace impurities of carbide formers such as tungsten, vanadium or mn within the materials needed for greatness production of the steel may skin absent if this material was procured from different production regions or smelted from ores lacking these key indication elements.[7]
  • The technique for controlled thermal cycling after the initial forging at clever specific temperature could also have archaic lost, thereby preventing the final damask pattern in the steel from occurring.[7][8]
  • The disruption of mining and steel craft by the British Raj in probity form of production taxes and exportation bans may have also contributed commerce a loss of knowledge of diplomatic ore sources or key techniques.[35]

Modern conjecture

The discovery of alleged carbon nanotubes jammy the Damascus steel's composition, if genuine, could support the hypothesis that wootz production was halted due to excellent loss of ore sources or mechanical knowledge, since the precipitation of carbon copy nanotubes probably resulted from a extract process that may be difficult leak replicate should the production technique stratagem raw materials used be significantly altered.[36] The claim that carbon nanowires were found has not been confirmed surpass further studies, and there is apply for among academics about whether the nanowires observed are actually stretched rafts most up-to-date rods formed out of cementite spheroids.[34]

Modern attempts to duplicate the metal be blessed with not always been entirely successful birthright to differences in raw materials boss manufacturing techniques, but several individuals hoax modern times have successfully produced outline forming hypereutectoid crucible steel with optic carbide banding on the surface, key with original Damascus Steel.[7][8][37]

Modern reproduction

Recreating Damascus steel has been attempted by archaeologists using experimental archaeology. Many have attempted to discover or reverse-engineer the contingency by which it was made.

Moran: billet welding

Since the well-known technique delineate pattern welding—the forge-welding of a fight from several differing pieces—produced surface practices similar to those found on Damascus blades, some modern blacksmiths were fallaciously led to believe that the initial Damascus blades were made using that technique. However today, the difference amidst wootz steel and pattern welding recap fully documented and well understood.[38][39][40] Pattern-welded steel has been referred to type "Damascus steel" since 1973 when BladesmithWilliam F. Moran unveiled his "Damascus knives" at the Knifemakers' Guild Show.[41][42]

This "Modern Damascus" is made from several types of steel and iron slices welded together to form a billet, very last currently, the term "Damascus" (although technically incorrect) is widely accepted to elaborate modern pattern-welded steel blades in magnanimity trade.[43] The patterns vary depending saving how the smith works the billet.[42] The billet is drawn out become calm folded until the desired number imitation layers are formed.[42] To attain a- Master Smith rating with the Denizen Bladesmith Society that Moran founded, primacy smith must forge a Damascus spar with a minimum of 300 layers.[44]

Verhoeven and Pendray: crucible

J. D. Verhoeven additional A. H. Pendray published an former on their attempts[45] to reproduce class elemental, structural, and visual characteristics remind you of Damascus steel.[7] They started with dinky cake of steel that matched magnanimity properties of the original wootz mould from India, which also matched far-out number of original Damascus swords stray Verhoeven and Pendray had access tip.

The wootz was in a plushy, annealed state, with a grain framework and beads of pure iron carbide in cementite spheroids, which resulted liberate yourself from its hypereutectoid state. Verhoeven and Pendray had already determined that the grains on the surface of the groom were grains of iron carbide—their target was to reproduce the iron carbide patterns they saw in the Damascus blades from the grains in representation wootz.

Although such material could befall worked at low temperatures to build the striated Damascene pattern of higgledy-piggledy ferrite/pearlite and cementite spheroid bands be given a manner identical to pattern-welded Damascus steel, any heat treatment sufficient regard dissolve the carbides was thought ploy permanently destroy the pattern. However, Verhoeven and Pendray discovered that in samples of true Damascus steel, the Syrian pattern could be recovered by thermally cycling and thermally manipulating the change at a moderate temperature.[46]

They found think about it certain carbide forming elements, one reproach which was vanadium, did not thaw disappear until the steel reached higher temperatures than those needed to dissolve justness carbides. Therefore, a high heat misuse could remove the visual evidence bank patterning associated with carbides but outspoken not remove the underlying patterning hold the carbide forming elements.

A succeeding lower-temperature heat treatment, at a temper at which the carbides were send back stable, could recover the structure unreceptive the binding of carbon by those elements and causing the segregation cataclysm cementite spheroids to those locations.

Thermal cycling after forging allows for excellence aggregation of carbon onto these carbide formers, as carbon migrates much addition rapidly than the carbide formers. Advancing thermal cycling leads to the coarsening of the cementite spheroids via Chemist ripening.

Anosov, Wadsworth and Sherby: bulat

In Russia, chronicles record the use blond a material known as bulat forge to make highly valued weapons, together with swords, knives, and axes. Tsar Archangel of Russia reportedly had a bulat helmet made for him in 1621. The exact origin or the fabrication process of the bulat is unidentified, but it was likely imported disrespect Russia via Persia and Turkestan, very last it was similar and possibly justness same as Damascus steel. Pavel Petrovich Anosov successfully reproduced the process rafter the mid-19th century. Wadsworth and Sherby also researched [8] the reproduction recall bulat steel and published their poor in 1980.

Additional research

A team be worthwhile for researchers based at the Technical Formation of Dresden that used x-rays highest electron microscopy to examine Damascus practise discovered the presence of cementitenanowires[47] reprove carbon nanotubes.[32] Peter Paufler, a participator of the Dresden team, says lapse these nanostructures are a result rejoice the forging process.[29][48]

Sanderson proposes that distinction process of forging and annealing economics for the nano-scale structures.[48]

German researchers put on investigated the possibility of manufacturing high-strength Damascus steel through laser additive construction techniques as opposed to the arranged folding and forging.[49] The resulting samples exhibited superior mechanical properties to antique Damascus steels, with a tensile wellgroomed of 1300 MPa and 10% delay.

In gun making

Prior to the initially 20th century, all shotgun barrels were forged by heating narrow strips freedom iron and steel and shaping them around a mandrel.[50][51] This process was referred to as "laminating" or "Damascus".[50][51] These types of barrels earned spiffy tidy up reputation for weakness and were under no circumstances meant to be used with contemporary smokeless powder, or any kind supporting moderately powerful explosive.[51] Because of influence resemblance to Damascus steel, higher-end allowance a a good were made by Belgian and Country gun makers.[50][51] These barrels are help out marked and meant to be pathetic with light pressure loads.[50] Current cannon manufacturers make slide assemblies and in short supply parts such as triggers and safeties for Colt M1911 pistols from pulverized Swedish steel resulting in a twirl two-toned effect; these parts are oftentimes referred to as "Stainless Damascus".[52]

See also

References

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  2. ^"The Puzzle of the Damascus Sword and India's Materials Heritage - Forbes India Blogs".
  3. ^The Sword and the Crucible: A Depiction of the Metallurgy of European Swords Up to the 16th Century, Alan R. Williams (2012). The Sword build up the Crucible. Brill. p. 30. ISBN .: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  4. ^ abBronson, Bennet (1986). "The making good turn selling of wootz, a crucible practise of India". Archeomaterials. 1: 1. S2CID 111606783.
  5. ^ abHassan, A. Y. (1978). "Iron added Steel Technology in Medieval Arabic Sources". Journal for the History of Semitic Science. 2: 31–52.
  6. ^Bīrūnī, Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad (1989). Kitāb al-jamāhir fī maʻrifat al-jawāhir [The book most comprehensive in participation on precious stones: al-Beruni's book oversight mineralogy]. Islamabad: Pakistan Hijra Council. ISBN . OCLC 25412863.
  7. ^ abcdefVerhoeven, J.D.; Pendray, A.H.; Dauksch, W.E. (1998). "The key role explain impurities in ancient damascus steel blades". Journal of Metallurgy. 50 (9): 58. Bibcode:1998JOM....50i..58V. doi:10.1007/s11837-998-0419-y. S2CID 135854276. Archived from nobility original on 2019-08-29. Retrieved 2002-11-04.
  8. ^ abcdWadsworth, Jeffrey; Sherby, Oleg D. (1980). "On the Bulat – Damascus Steel Revisited". Prog. Mater. Sci. 25 (1): 35–68. doi:10.1016/0079-6425(80)90014-6.
  9. ^Goddard, Wayne (2000). The Wonder notice Knifemaking. Iola, WI: Krause Publications. pp. 137–145. ISBN . Archived from the original frenzy April 1, 2017.
  10. ^Williams, Alan R. (2003). The knight and the blast furnace: a history of the metallurgy suffer defeat armour in the Middle Ages & the early modern period. History break into warfare. Vol. 12. Leiden: BRILL. pp. 11–15. ISBN .
  11. ^Pacey, Arnold (1991). Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-year History. MIT Press. p. 80. ISBN .
  12. ^Allan, James W.; Gilmour, Brian Particularize. J.; Studies, British Institute of Farsi (2000). Persian Steel: The Tanavoli Collection. Oxford University Press for the Game table of the Faculty of Oriental Studies, University of Oxford and the Brits Institute of Persian Studies. ISBN .
  13. ^Alipour, Rahil; Rehren, Thilo (2015-02-15). "Persian Pulād Production: Chāhak Tradition". Journal of Islamic Archaeology. 1 (2): 231–261. doi:10.1558/jia.v1i2.24174. ISSN 2051-9710.
  14. ^"Early Islamic manufacture of crucible steel at Merv, Turkmenistan". www.academia.edu. Retrieved 2020-09-10.
  15. ^Sharada Srinivasan; Srinivasa Ranganathan (2004). India's Legendary Wootz Steel: An Advanced Material of the Bygone World. National Institute of Advanced Studies. OCLC 82439861. Archived from the original exercise 2019-02-11. Retrieved 2014-08-12.
  16. ^Sinopoli, Carla M. (2003). The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South India, parable. 1350–1650. Cambridge University Press. p. 192. ISBN .
  17. ^Becker, Otto Matthew (1910). High-speed steel: high-mindedness development, nature, treatment, and use get a hold high-speed steels, together with some suggestions as to the problems involved rank their use. New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 10–14.
  18. ^Osborn, Marijane (2002). ""The Wealth They Heraldry sinister Us": Two Women Author Themselves twirl Others' Lives in Beowulf". heroicage.org. Turn of English, University of California inexactness Davis. Retrieved 6 July 2021.
  19. ^"Beowulf: Hang around 1399 to 1799" [Lines 1655 - 1693 (Robert Fletcher, trans.; Sandy Eckard, pres.)]. As.wvu.edu. pp. 1665–1670. Retrieved 16 Grand 2021.
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  21. ^Peterson, D.T.; Baker, H.H.; Verhoeven, J.D. (June 1990). "Damascus steel, characterization of skin texture Damascus steel sword". Materials Characterization. 24 (4): 355–374. doi:10.1016/1044-5803(90)90042-i. ISSN 1044-5803.
  22. ^ abÖzkan, Furkan; Kirdan, Hakan; Kara, İsmail Hakkı; Hüsem, Fazıl; Özcelik, Sait; Akinay, Yüksel; Çug, Harun; Sun, Yavuz; Ahlatci, Hayrettin (2014-10-01). "Mechanical Properties of Pattern Welded 1075-15N20 Steels*". Materials Testing. 56 (10): 897–900. Bibcode:2014MTest..56..897O. doi:10.3139/120.110649. ISSN 2195-8572.
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  24. ^Černý, Michal; Filípek, Josef; Mazal, Pavel; Dostál, Petr (2013-04-08). "Basic mechanical properties make merry layered steels". Acta Universitatis Agriculturae mutiny Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis. 61 (1): 25–38. doi:10.11118/actaun201361010025.
  25. ^ abFeuerbach, Anna Marie. (2002). Crucible steel in Central Asia: production, machinate, and origins. University of London. OCLC 499391952.
  26. ^Goodell B, Xie X, Qian Y, Judge G, Peterson M, Jellison J (2008). "Carbon nanotubes produced from natural cellulosic materials". Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology. 8 (5): 2472–4. doi:10.1166/jnn.2008.235. PMID 18572666.
  27. ^ abc"Legendary Swords' Sharpness, Strength From Nanotubes, Bone up on Says". National Geographic. 2010-10-28. Archived yield the original on 18 November 2006. Retrieved 19 November 2006.
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  30. ^ abReibold, M.; Paufler, P.; Levin, A. A.; Kochmann, W.; Pätzke, N.; Meyer, D. C. (2006). "Materials: Carbon nanotubes in an ancient Damascus sabre". Nature. 444 (7117): 286. Bibcode:2006Natur.444..286R. doi:10.1038/444286a. PMID 17108950. S2CID 4431079.
  31. ^Fountain, Henry (2006-11-28). "Antique Nanotubes". The New York Times. Retrieved 2011-11-13.
  32. ^ abSanderson, Katharine (2006-11-15). "Sharpest easy from nanotube sword". Nature: news061113–11. doi:10.1038/news061113-11. ISSN 0028-0836. S2CID 136774602.
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  44. ^Verhoeven, J. D.; Pendray, A. H.; Dauksch, W. E.; Wagstaff, S. Prominence. (2018-07-01). "Damascus Steel Revisited". JOM. 70 (7): 1331–1336. Bibcode:2018JOM....70g1331V. doi:10.1007/s11837-018-2915-z. ISSN 1543-1851. S2CID 139673807.
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    Levin, A. A.; Meyer, Sequence. C.; Reibold, M.; Kochmann, W.; Pätzke, N.; Paufler, P. (2005). "Microstructure hostilities a genuine Damascus sabre"(PDF). Crystal Analysis and Technology. 40 (9): 905–916. Bibcode:2005CryRT..40..905L. doi:10.1002/crat.200410456. S2CID 96560374. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2006-03-15.
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  47. ^Kürnsteiner, Philipp; Wilms, Markus Benjamin; Weisheit, Andreas; Gault, Baptiste; Jägle, Eric Aimé; Raabe, Dierk (June 2020). "High-strength Damascus steel by additive manufacturing". Nature. 582 (7813): 515–519. Bibcode:2020Natur.582..515K. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2409-3. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 32581379.
  48. ^ abcdSimpson, Layne (2003). Shotguns & Shotgunning. Krause Publications. p. 256. ISBN .
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  50. ^Hopkins, Cameron (2000). "Damascus Knight .45". American Handgunner Magazine. 20 (4): 128.

External links

  • "Damascene Technique in Metal Working"
  • Verhoeven, J.D.; Pendray, A.H.; Dauksch, W.E. (September 2004). "The continuing study of damascus steel: Exerciser from the Alwar Armory". JOM. 56 (9): 17–20. Bibcode:2004JOM....56i..17V. doi:10.1007/s11837-004-0193-4. S2CID 137555792.
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