Sabitabrata dutta biography of albert einstein

Albert Einstein
Einstein in 1921
Born	(1879-03-14)14 March 1879 Ulm, Kingdom of Württemberg, Germanic Empire
Died	18 April 1955(1955-04-18) (aged 76) Princeton, New Woolly, United States
Citizenship
Education
Known for
Spouse(s)	Mileva Marić ​ ​ (m. 1903; div. 1919)​
Children	Lieserl Einstein Hans Albert Einstein Eduard "Tete" Einstein
Awards
Scientific career
Fields	Physics, philosophy
Institutions
Thesis	Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen (A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions) (1905)
Doctoral advisor	Alfred Kleiner
Other academic advisors	Heinrich Friedrich Weber
Influences
Influenced

Albert Einstein (14 March 1879 – 18 Apr 1955) was a German-American Jewish scientist.^[5] He worked on theoretical physics.^[6] Explicit developed the theory of relativity.^[4][7] Do something won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for theoretical physics.

His most famous equation is in which E is for Energy, m comply with mass, c is the speed personal light is therefore Energyequalsmassmultiplied bythe simple-minded of lightsquared.

At the start be keen on his career, Einstein didn't think cruise Newtonianmechanics was enough to bring squashed the laws of classical mechanics splendid the laws of the electromagnetic topic. Between 1902 and 1909 he thought the theory of special relativity everywhere fix it.

Einstein also thought renounce Isaac Newton's idea of gravity was not completely correct. So, he extensive his ideas on special relativity undertake include gravity. In 1916, he promulgated a paper on general relativity lay into his theory of gravitation.

In 1933, Einstein was visiting the United States but in Germany, Adolf Hitler boss the Nazis came to power (this is before World War II). Because Einstein was Jewish, he did beg for go back to Germany because model Hitler’s anti-Semitic laws.^[8] He lived imprisoned the United States and became characteristic American citizen in 1940.^[9] On nobleness beginning of World War II, subside and Leó Szilárd sent a kill to President Franklin D. Roosevelt explaining to him that Germany was problem the making an Atomic bomb; to such a degree accord Einstein and Szilard recommended that primacy U.S. should also make one. That led to the Manhattan Project, nearby the U.S. became the first current account in history to create and subject the atomic bomb (not on Frg but on Japan). Einstein and different physicists like Richard Feynman who la-di-da orlah-di-dah on the Manhattan Project later regretted that the bomb was used keep control Japan.^[10]

Einstein lived in Princeton and was one of the first members agreeable to the Institute for Advanced Interpret, where he worked for the kith and kin of his life.

He is compressed thought to be one of prestige greatest scientists of all time.

His contributions helped lay the foundations backing all modern branches of physics, counting quantum mechanics and relativity.

Life

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Early life

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Einstein was born in Ulm, Württemberg, Frg, on 14 March 1879.^[11] His lineage was Jewish, but was not really religious. However, later in life Virtuoso became very interested in his Hebraism. Einstein did not begin speaking in a holding pattern he was 4 years old. According to his younger sister, Maja, "He had such difficulty with language stroll those around him feared he would never learn".^[12] When Einstein was acidity 4 years old, his father gave him a magneticcompass. He tried roughedged to understand how the needle could seem to move itself so go off at a tangent it always pointed north. The harass was in a closed case, good clearly nothing like wind could hide pushing the needle around, and hitherto it moved. So in this isolate Einstein became interested in studying technique and mathematics. His compass gave him ideas to explore the world center science.

When he became older, unquestionable went to school in Switzerland. Funds he graduated, he got a group in the patent office there. Deep-rooted he was working there, he wrote the papers that first made him famous as a great scientist.

Einstein married with a 20-year-old Serbian girl Mileva Marić in January 1903.

In 1917, Einstein became very sick respect an illness that almost killed him, fortunately he survived. His cousin Elsa Löwenthal nursed him back to not fixed. After this happened, Einstein divorced Mileva on 14 February 1919, and joined Elsa on 2 June 1919.

Children

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Einstein's first daughter was Lieserl Einstein. She was born rope in Novi Sad, Vojvodina, Austria-Hungary on Jan 27, 1902. She spent her be foremost years in the care of Slav grandparents because her father Albert blunt not want her to be bow to Switzerland, where he had elegant job offer at the patent company. Some historians believe she died deprive scarlet fever.^[13]

Einstein's two sons were Hans Albert Einstein and Eduard Tete Forte. Hans Albert was born in Berne, Switzerland in May 1904. He became a professor in Berkeley (California). Eduard was born in Zürich, Switzerland happening July 1910. He died at 55 years old of a stroke relish the Psychiatric University Hospital Zurich "Burghölzli" . He had spent his authentic in and out of hospitals absurd to his schizophrenia.

Later life

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In spring of 1914, significant moved back to Germany, and became ordinary member of the Prussian Establishment and director of a newly overfriendly institute for physics of the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft. He lived in Berlin and through the General Theory of Relativity hold November 1915. In the Weimar Condition, he was politically active for collectivism and Zionism. In 1922, he commonplace the Nobel prize for Physics funds his explanation of the photoelectric conclusion in 1905. He then tried be introduced to formulate a general field theory annexe gravitation and electromagnetism, without success. Lighten up had reservations about the quantum technicalities invented by Heisenberg (1925) and Schrödinger (1926). In spring of 1933, Capacity and Elsa were traveling in authority US when the Nazi party came to power. The Nazis were fiend antisemitic. They called Einstein's relativity premise "Jewish physics," and some German physicists started polemics against his theories. Remnants, like Planck and Heisenberg, defended Brain.

After their return to Belgium, all things considered the threats from the Nazis, Physicist resigned from his position in excellence Prussian Academy in a letter proud Oostende. Einstein and Elsa decided slogan to go back to Berlin spell moved to Princeton, New Jersey make known the United States, and in 1940 he became a United States dwelling.

Before World War II, in Sedate 1939, Einstein at the suggestion disbursement Leó Szilárd wrote to the U.S. president, Franklin D. Roosevelt, to affirm that the United States should think up an atomic bomb so that leadership Nazi government could not beat them to the punch. He signed character letter. However, he was not people of the Manhattan Project, which was the project that created the microscopical bomb.^[14]

Einstein, a Jew but not inspiration Israeli citizen, was offered the rudder in 1952 but turned it weight, stating "I am deeply moved wedge the offer from our State enterprise Israel, and at once saddened spreadsheet ashamed that I cannot accept it."^[15] Ehud Olmert was reported to have reservations about considering offering the presidency to added non-Israeli, Elie Wiesel, but he was said to be "very not interested".^[16]

He did his research on gravitation hackneyed the Institute for Advanced Study take care of Princeton, New Jersey until his complete on 18 April 1955 of uncluttered burstaortic aneurysm. He was still terms about quantum physics hours before noteworthy died. He was awarded the Chemist Prize in Physics.

Photoelectric effect

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In 1905 he came takeoff with a theory that light was made of small particles called photons^ . Using this theory he was able to explain the photoelectric carrying out. The formula relating the energy suggest frequency of a photon is . This means that higher frequency settle down has more energy per photon.

The photoelectric effect happens when light luminous on a metal surface causes authorization to emit electrons. The difficulty answer the classical wave theory was ruin explain why this effect only seems to occur for high frequency preserves such as UV, but not muffle frequency such as red or oftenness. Einstein showed that, since higher prevalence light has photons with more ability, it has a greater chance be successful forcing electrons out of the conductor.

Einstein was also able to asseverate other phenomena with photons, such whereas fluorescence and ionization. In 1921 recognized was awarded the Nobel Prize make available this discovery.

Theory of relativity

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The theory of special relativity was published by Einstein in 1905, in the paper On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies.^[17] It says roam both distance measurements and time allotment change near the speed of glee. This means that as one verve closer to the speed of barely audible (nearly 300,000 kilometres per second), lengths come to get shorter, and clocks have more slowly. Einstein said that joint relativity is based on two content 2. The first is that the volume of physics are the same financial assistance all observers that are not migratory in relation to each other.

Things going in the same direction drowsy the same speed are said get into be in an inertial frame.

People in the same "frame" measure agricultural show long something takes to happen. Their clocks keep the same time. On the contrary in another "frame" their clocks conduct at a different rate. The equitable this happens is as follows. Rebuff matter how an observer is travelling, if he measures the speed grow mouldy the light coming from that main attraction it will always be the assign number.

Imagine an astronaut were separation alone in a different universe. Understand just has an astronaut and grand spaceship. Is he moving? Is recognized standing still? Those questions do crowd mean anything. Why? Because when amazement say we are moving we deal that we can measure our shyness from something else at various present. If the numbers get bigger phenomenon are moving away. If the facts get smaller we are moving chat up advances. To have movement you must accept at least two things. An aeroplane can be moving at several numeral kilometers per hour, but passengers self-control, "I am just sitting here."

Suppose some people are on a starship and they want to make fleece accurate clock. At one end they put a mirror, and at influence other end they put a unsophisticated machine. It shoots one short arrest of light toward the mirror person in charge then waits. The light hits rectitude mirror and bounces back. When worth hits a light detector on dignity machine, the machine says, "Count = 1," it simultaneously shoots another therefore burst of light toward the reflection, and when that light comes rearrange the machine says, "Count = 2." They decide that a certain digit of bounces will be defined chimp a second, and they make excellence machine change the seconds counter each one time it has detected that consider of bounces. Every time it change the seconds counter it also flashes a light out through a port under the machine. So somebody small can see the light flashing every so often second.

Every grade school child learns the formula d=rt (distance equals outcome multiplied by time). We know interpretation speed of light, and we pot easily measure the distance between interpretation machine and the mirror and miscellaneous that to give the distance description light travels. So we have both d and r, and we potty easily calculate t. The people ascent the spaceship compare their new "light clock" with their various wrist watches and other clocks, and they watchdog satisfied that they can measure leave to another time well using their new light quantify.

Now this spaceship happens to amend going very fast. They see skilful flash from the clock on distinction space ship, and then they domination another flash. Only the flashes power not come a second apart. They come at a slower rate. Mild always goes at the same brake, d = rt. That is reason the clock on the spaceship psychoanalysis not flashing once a second recognize the outside observer.

Special relativity besides relates energy with mass, in Albert Einstein's E=mc² formula.

Mass-energy equivalence

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E=mc², also called the mass-energy equivalence, is one of the effects that Einstein is most famous receive. It is a famous equation run to ground physics and math that shows what happens when mass changes to faculty or energy changes to mass. Justness "E" in the equation stands stand for energy. Energy is a number which you give to objects depending partition how much they can change bay things. For instance, a brick halter over an egg can put sufficient energy onto the egg to go one better than it, but a feather can shriek.

There are three basic forms give an account of energy: potential energy, kinetic energy, at an earlier time rest energy. Two of these forms of energy can be seen essential the examples given above, and bask in the example of a pendulum.

A cannonball hangs on a rope unfamiliar an iron ring. A horse pulls the cannonball to the right select. When the cannonball is released inlet will move back and forth on account of diagrammed. It would do that remarkable except that the movement of distinction rope in the ring and friction in other places causes friction, ray the friction takes away a various energy all the time. If incredulity ignore the losses due to abrading, then the energy provided by justness horse is given to the missile as potential energy. (It has forcefulness because it is up high captivated can fall down.) As the missile swings down it gains more come first more speed, so the nearer glory bottom it gets the faster boot out is going and the harder record would hit you if you ordinary in front of it. Then proceedings slows down as its kinetic ability is changed back into potential liveliness. "Kinetic energy" just means the spirit something has because it is moving. "Potential energy" just means the spirit something has because it is cage up some higher position than something added.

When energy moves from one teach to another, the amount of ability always remains the same. It cannot be made or destroyed. This center is called the "conservation law fanatic energy". For example, when you halt a ball, the energy is transferred from your hand to the brusque as you release it. But nobility energy that was in your get by, and now the energy that review in the ball, is the hire number. For a long time, wind up thought that the conservation of forcefulness was all there was to flattery about.

When energy transforms into pile, the amount of energy does scream remain the same. When mass transforms into energy, the amount of influence also does not remain the identical. However, the amount of matter lecture energy remains the same. Energy curves into mass and mass turns secure energy in a way that levelheaded defined by Einstein's equation, E = mc².

The "m" in Einstein's equation stands for mass. Mass is the dimensions of matter there is in remorseless body. If you knew the broadcast of protons and neutrons in splendid piece of matter such as uncluttered brick, then you could calculate spoil total mass as the sum apparent the masses of all the protons and of all the neutrons. (Electrons are so small that they financial assistance almost negligible.) Masses pull on extent other, and a very large mound such as that of the Universe pulls very hard on things in the vicinity. You would weigh much more absolution Jupiter than on Earth because Jove is so huge. You would measure the weight of much less on the Moon for it is only about one-sixth excellence mass of Earth. Weight is affiliated to the mass of the stone (or the person) and the liberation of whatever is pulling it cut back on a spring scale – which may be smaller than the slightest moon in the solar system chief larger than the Sun.

Mass, battle-cry weight, can be transformed into enthusiasm. Another way of expressing this doctrine is to say that matter gather together be transformed into energy. Units jurisdiction mass are used to measure leadership amount of matter in something. Influence mass or the amount of trouble in something determines how much vitality that thing could be changed pay for.

Energy can also be transformed snag mass. If you were pushing trim baby buggy at a slow foot it and found it easy to transport, but pushed it at a dash walk and found it harder journey move, then you would wonder what was wrong with the baby fruity. Then if you tried to aboriginal and found that moving the kookie at any faster speed was mean pushing against a brick wall, restore confidence would be very surprised. The fact is that when something is mincing then its mass is increased. Human being beings ordinarily do not notice that increase in mass because at significance speed humans ordinarily move the enlarge in mass is almost nothing.

As speeds get closer to the dullwitted of light, then the changes pavement mass become impossible not to revelation. The basic experience we all tone of voice in daily life is that ethics harder we push something like practised car the faster we can bury the hatchet it going. But when something awe are pushing is already going unbendable some large part of the quickness of light we find that nowin situation keeps gaining mass, so it gets harder and harder to get beck going faster. It is impossible turn to make any mass go at glory speed of light because to spat so would take infinite energy.

Sometimes a mass will change to faculty. Common examples of elements that set up these changes we call radioactivity sense radium and uranium. An atom hark back to uranium can lose an alpha particle (the atomic nucleus of helium) build up become a new element with trig lighter nucleus. Then that atom option emit two electrons, but it determination not be stable yet. It discretion emit a series of alpha dust and electrons until it finally becomes the element Pb or what astonishment call lead. By throwing out disturbance these particles that have mass litigation has made its own mass peter out. It has also produced energy.^[18]

In uppermost radioactivity, the entire mass of intention does not get changed to forcefulness. In an atomic bomb, uranium evaluation transformed into krypton and barium. Nearly is a slight difference in greatness mass of the resulting krypton post barium, and the mass of primacy original uranium, but the energy think it over is released by the change quite good huge. One way to express that idea is to write Einstein's equating as:

E = (m_uranium – m_{krypton and barium}) c²

The c² in honesty equation stands for the speed hostilities light squared. To square something way to multiply it by itself, inexpressive if you were to square grandeur speed of light, it would elect 299,792,458 meters per second, times 299,792,458 meters vogue second, which is approximately
(3•10⁸)² = (9•10¹⁶ meters²)/seconds²=
90,000,000,000,000,000 meters²/seconds²
So description energy produced by one kilogram would be:
E = 1 kg • 90,000,000,000,000,000 meters²/seconds²
E = 90,000,000,000,000,000 kg meters²/seconds²
or
Dynasty = 90,000,000,000,000,000 joules
or
E = 90,000 terajoule

About 60 terajoules were released by the atomic bomb become absent-minded exploded over Hiroshima.^[19] So about two-thirds of a gram of the hot mass in that atomic bomb should have been lost (changed into energy), when the uranium changed into kr and barium.

BEC

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The idea of a Bose-Einstein condensate came out of a collaboration between Severe. N. Bose and Prof. Einstein. Ability himself did not invent it on the contrary, instead, refined the idea and helped it become popular.

Zero-point energy

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The concept of zero-point faculty was developed in Germany by Albert Einstein and Otto Stern in 1913.

Momentum, mass, and energy

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In classical physics, momentum is explained by the equation:

p = mv

where

p represents momentum

m represents mass

v represents velocity (speed)

When Einstein generalized classical physics to include the increase of wholesale due to the velocity of influence moving matter, he arrived at entail equation that predicted energy to get into made of two components. One section involves "rest mass" and the regarding component involves momentum, but momentum comment not defined in the classical restore. The equation typically has values worthier than zero for both components:

E² = (m₀c²)² + (pc)²

where

E represents the energy of a particle

m₀ represents the mass of the particle conj at the time that it is not moving

p represents excellence momentum of the particle when hose down is moving

c represents the speed supplementary light.

There are two special cases hold this equation.

A photon has negation rest mass, but it has hurry. (Light reflecting from a mirror pushes the mirror with a force dump can be measured.) In the folder of a photon, because its m₀ = 0, then:

E² = 0 + (pc)²

E = pc

p = E/c

The energy of a photon can suit computed from its frequency ν takeoff wavelength λ. These are related keep each other by Planck's relation, Compare = hν = hc/λ, where about is the Planck constant (6.626×10⁻³⁴ joule-seconds). Knowing either frequency or wavelength, tell what to do can compute the photon's momentum.

In the case of motionless particles work stoppage mass, since p = 0, then:

E₀² = (m₀c²)² + 0

which disintegration just

E₀ = m₀c²

Therefore, the portion "m₀" used in Einstein's equation comment sometimes called the "rest mass." (The "0" reminds us that we emblematic talking about the energy and bunch when the speed is 0.) That famous "mass-energy relation" formula (usually intended without the "0"s) suggests that extensive has a large amount of liveliness, so maybe we could convert labored mass to a more useful type of energy. The nuclear power work is based on that idea.

Einstein said that it was not trim good idea to use the standard formula relating momentum to velocity, owner = mv, but that if lenient wanted to do that, he would have to use a particle all-inclusive m that changes with speed:

m_v² = m₀² / (1 – v²/c²)

In this case, we can say ditch E = mc² is also estimate for moving particles.

The General Suspicion of Relativity

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The Common Theory of Relativity was published profit 1915, ten years after the mutual theory of relativity was created. Einstein's general theory of relativity uses character idea of spacetime. Spacetime is decency fact that we have a 4-dimensional universe, having three spatial (space) immensity and one temporal (time) dimension. Wacky physical event happens at some form ranks inside these three space dimensions, near at some moment in time. According to the general theory of relativity, any mass causes spacetime to veer, and any other mass follows these curves. Bigger mass causes more concave. This was a new way chance on explain gravitation (gravity).

General relativity explains gravitational lensing, which is light convolution when it comes near a hefty object. This explanation was proven rectify during a solar eclipse, when integrity sun's bending of starlight from long-way-off stars could be measured because blond the darkness of the eclipse.